Korean Buddhism

   

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Korean Buddhism is distinguished from other forms of Buddhism as practised e.g. in China through a remarkably thorough resolution of doctrinal loopholes the early Korean monks perceived in the traditions handed down to them initially. This holistic approach is an invariant in the works of virtually all major Korean thinkers and has resulted in a distinct variation of Buddhism, called by Weonhyo (617-686) the Tongbulgyo ("interpenetrated Buddhism"). The strongest influences came naturally from China due to the geographic situation. Korea also was the stepping stone for the dissemination of Buddhist philosophy to Japan for several centuries.

Initially in a strong position and until the Goryeo period even the state religion, Buddhism suffered extreme repression for severeal hundred years during the Joseon dynasty, which was dominated by Neo-Confucian ideology. Only after Buddhist monks played a central role in repelling the Japanese invasion at the end of the 16th century, Buddhism was restored to a position of minimal acceptance. Nevertheless it remained subdued until the end of the Joseon period, when, as a side-effect of the Japanese occupation from 1910 to 1945, its position was strengthened somewhat again, although the occupation proved a difficult period on the whole. After World War II, the Seon school of Korean Buddhism gained again wide acceptance. It is estimated today that between 40% and 50% of the Koreans are active Buddhists.

Buddhism in the Three Kingdoms

The exact date when the introduction of Buddhism to Korea began is unknown, but is thought have occurred at the latest in the 3rd or early 4th century. The Korean peninsula was at that time politically subdivided in three kingdoms: Goguryeo in the north, Baekje in the southwest and Silla in the southeast. In 372 the Chinese monk Sundo (順道, or Shundao in Chinese) was sent by the Qin ruler Fujian (符堅), who reigned 357 - 384, to the court of the king Sosurim (小獸林) of Goguryeo, whose reign lasted from 371 to 383. In 384, the Serindian monk Maranant'a (摩羅難陀; Mālānanda) arrived in Baekje, while it took until the 5th century before Buddhism entered Silla.

Many Korean Buddhist monks traveled to China in order to study the buddhadharma in the late Three Kingdoms Period, especially in the late 6th century. The monk Banya (波若; 562-613?) is said to have studied under the Tiantai master Zhiyi, and Gyeomik (謙益; he returned in 526) of Baekje even went to India to learn Sanskrit and study Vinaya. They brought back numerous scriptures and were vervent missionaries, furthering the spread of Buddhism thoughout Korea and initiating the transmission of Buddhism to Japan. The date of the first mission to Japan is unclear, but it is known that a second detachment of scholars was sent to Japan upon invitation by the Japanese rulers in 577. The strong Korean influence on the development of Buddhism in Japan continued through the Unified Silla period; only in the 8th or 9th century did independent studies by Japanese monks begin in significant numbers.

Several schools of thought developed in Korea during these early times:

  • the Samnon (三論宗 or Sanlun in Chinese) school focused on the Indian Mādhyamika (Middle Path) doctrine
  • the Gyeyul (戒律宗 or Vinaya in Sanskrit) school was mainly concerned with the study and implementation of moral discipline (śīla)
  • the Yeolban (涅槃宗 or Nirvāna in Sanskrit) school, which was based in the themes of the Mahāparinirvāna-sūtra

Towards the end of the Three Kingdoms Period, the Weonyung (圓融宗 or Yuanrong in Chinese) school was formed. It would lead the actualization of the metaphysics of interpenetration as found in the Huayan jing (華嚴經) and soon was considered the premier school, especially among the educated aristocracy. This school was later known as Hwaeom (華嚴宗 or Huayan in Chinese) and was the longest lasting of these "imported" schools. It had strong ties with the Beopseong (法性宗), the indigenous Korean school of thought.

The monk Jajang (慈藏) is credited for having been a major force in setting up the Korean sangha (monastic community), and for helping to institute the role of Buddhism as a national religion.

Buddhism in the Unified Silla period (668 - 918)

In 668, the kingdom of Silla succeeded in unifying the whole Korean peninsula, giving rise to a period of political stability that lasted for about one hundered years, which also was a zenith in the scholarly studies of Buddhism in Korea. In general the most popular areas of study were Weonyung, Yusik (Ch. 唯識; Weishi; "consciousness-only"; the East Asian form of Yogācāra), Jeongto (Pure Land), and the indigenous Korean Beopseong ("dharma-nature school"). The monk Weonhyo in particular taught the "Pure Land"-practice of yeombul, which would become very popular amongst both scholars and laypeople. His work had a lasting influence on Buddhist thinkers in Korea even to the present day. The hallmark of his work is a synthetic view, unifying the seemingly divergent Buddhist doctrines that had developed in India and China by use of hermeneutical methods and analysis through the essence-function (體用; or che-yong) framework, which was popular in native East Asian forms of philosophy. His work was instrumental in the development of the dominant school of Korea Buddhist thought, known variously as Beopseong, Haedong (海東, "Korean") and later as Jungdo (中道, "Middle way")

Weonhyo's friend Uisang (義湘) went to Changan, where he studied under Huayan patriarchs Zhiyan (智儼; 600-668) and Fazang (法藏; 643-712). When he returned after twenty years, his work contributed to Hwaeom becoming the predominant doctrinal influence on Korean Buddhism, together with Weonhyo's "tong bulgyo" thought. Hwaeom principles were deeply assimilated into the Korean meditational school (the Seon school), where they made a profound effect on its basic attitudes.

A certain "reverse effect" of Silla Buddhism and especially of these two philophers on Chinese Buddhism also occurred. Weonhyo's commentaries held strong sway with the preeminent Chinese Buddhist philosopher Fazang, and Weonchuk's (631-696) commentary on the Saṃdhinirmocana-sūtra-sūtra had a strong influence in Tibetan Buddhism.

As was the case in Tang China, as well as the Nara and early Heian period in Japan (which are roughly contemporary to the Silla period), the intellectual developments of Silla Buddhism also brought with them significant cultural achievements in many areas, including painting, literature, sculpture, and architecture. During this period many large and beautiful temples were built, and two crowning achievements were the temple Bulguksa, and the cave-retreat of Seokguram (石窟庵). Bulguksa was especially famous for its jeweled pagodas, while Seokguram was known for the beauty of its stone sculpture.

A new epoch in Korean Buddhism began during the latter Silla period with the birth of schools of Seon in Korea. In China, the movement toward a meditation-based view of practice which came to be known as chan (meaning "meditation," widely known in the West through its Japanese variant zen), had begun during the sixth and seventh centuries, and it was not long before the influence of the new meditational school reached Korea, where it was known as Seon. Soon a tension between the new meditational schools, and the previously existent academically oriented schools, subsumed under the term gyo (meaning "learning" or "study"), developed.

Beomnang (法朗; fl. 632-646), said to be a student of the Chinese master Daoxin (道信; 580-651), is generally credited with the initial transmission of Seon into Korea. Seon was popularized by Sinhaeng (神行; 704-779) in the latter part of the eighth century and by Doui (道義; d. 825) at the beginning of the ninth century. From then on, many Koreans studied Chan in China and, upon their return, established their own schools at various mountain monasteries with their leading disciples. Initially, the number of these schools was fixed at nine, and Korean Seon was termed the "nine mountains" (九山 or gusan) school at the time. Eight of these were of the lineage of Mazu Daoyi (馬祖道一; 709-788), as they were established through connection with either him or one of his eminent disciples. The one exception was the Sumi-san school founded by Ieom (利嚴; 869-936), which had developed from the Caotong (曹洞) lineage.

Buddhism as state religion in the Goryeo period (918-1392)

Initially the new Seon schools were regarded by the established doctrinal schools as radical and dangerous upstarts. Thus, the early founders of the various "nine mountain" monasteries met with considerable resistance, repressed by the long influence in court by the Gyo schools. The struggles which ensued would carry on for most of the Goryeo period, but gradually the Seon argument for the possession of the true transmission of enlightenment would gain the upper hand. The position that would generally be adopted in the later Seon schools, due in large part to the efforts of Jinul, would not be that of clear superiority of Seon meditational methods, but rather a declaration of the intrinsic unity and mutual complementarity of the Seon and Gyo viewpoints. Although all these schools are mentioned in historical records, toward the end of the dynasty it was in fact Seon which become dominant in terms of effect on the government and society, and the production of noteworthy scholars and adepts. During the Goryeo period, Seon blossomed and became a "religion of the state" in a very thorough manner, receiving extensive support and privileges, while at the same time involving itself deeply with the ruling family and powerful members of the court.

Although the scholastic schools in general waned in activity and influence during this period of the growth of Seon, vitality continued to be seen in the field of Hwaeom studies, where the powerful impetus provided by Uisang and Weonhyo continued well into the Goryeo. In particluar the work of Gyunyeo (均如; 923-973) prepared the ground for the future reconciling of Hwaeom and Seon by his accommodating attitude toward the latter. His works are an important source for modern scholarship in terms of identifying the distinctive nature of Korean Hwaeom.

Another important advocate of Seon/Gyo unity was Uicheon. Like most other early Goryeo monks, he began his studies in Buddhism with Hwaeom. he later travelled to China, and upon his return very actively promulgated the Cheontae (天台宗 or Tiantai in Chinese) teaching, which would be recognized as another Seon school, and thus this period came to be called "five doctrinal and two meditational [schools]" (ogyo yangjong). Uicheon himself, however, alienated too many Seon adherents, and he died fairly young without seeing a Seon-Gyo unity accomplished.

The most important figure of Seon in the Goryeo was Jinul (知訥; 1158-1210). In his time the sangha was in a state of crisis, in terms of external appearance as well as internal issues of doctrine. Buddhism had gradually become infected by secular tendencies and involvements, such as fortune-telling and the offering of prayers and rituals for success in secular endeavors. This kind of corruption resulted in the profusion of increasingly larger numbers of monks and nuns with questionable motivations. Therefore, the correction, revival and improvement of the quality of Buddhism were prominent issues in the works of some of the more important Buddhist leaders of the period.

Jinul sought to establish a new movement within Korean Seon which he called the "samādhi and prajā society" whose goal was to establish a new community of disciplined, pure-minded practitioners deep in the mountains. He eventually accomplished this mission with the founding of the Seonggwangsa monastery at Mt. Jogye (曹溪山). Jinul's works are characterized by a thoroughgoing analysis and reformulation of the methodologies of Seon study and practice. One major issue that had fermented long in Chinese Chan and which had received special focus from Jinul, was the relationship between so-called "gradual" and "sudden" methods in practice and enlightenment. Drawing upon various Chinese treatments of this topic, most importantly those by Zongmi (780-841) and Dahui, (大慧; 1089-1163) Jinul came up with his famous "sudden enlightenment followed by gradual practice" dictum which he outlined in a few relatively concise and accessible texts. From Dahui Jinul also incorporated the gwanhwa (觀話) method into his practice. This form of meditation is the main method taught in Korean Seon even today. Jinul's philosophical resolution of the Seon-Gyo conflict brought a deep and lasting effect on Korean Buddhism.

The general trend of the Buddhism of the latter half of the Goryeo is that of decline due to corruption and the rise of strong anti-Buddhist political and philosophical sentiment. But on the other hand, this period of relative decadence would produce some of Korea's most renowned Seon masters. Three important monks of this period who figure prominently in charting the future course of Korean Seon were contemporaries and friends: Gyeonghan Baeg'un (景閑白雲; 1298-1374), Taego Bou (太古普愚; 1301-1382) and Naong Hyegeun (懶翁慧勤; 1320-1376). All three went to Yuan China to learn the Linji (臨濟 or Imje in Korean) gwanhwa teaching which had been popularized by Jinul. All three returned and established the sharp, confrontational methods of the Imje school in their own teaching. Each of the three was also said to have had hundreds of disciples, such that this new infusion into Korean Seon brought about considerable effect. Yet despite this Imje influence (which was generally considered to be rather anti-scholarly in nature), Gyeonghan and Naong, under the influence of Jinul and the traditional tong bulgyo tendency, showed an unusual interest in scriptural study, as well as a strong understanding of Confucianism and Taoism, due to the increasing influence of Chinese philosophy as the ground of official education. It is from this time that a marked tendency of Korean Buddhist monks to be "three teachings" exponents appears.

A significant historical event of the Goryeo period is the production of the first woodblock edition of the Tripitaka, called the Tripitaka Koreana. Two editions were made, the first one completed from 1210 to 1231 and the second one from 1214 to 1259. The first edition was destroyed in a fire during an attack by Mongol invaders in 1232, but the second edition is still in existence at Haeinsa in Gyeongsang province. This edition of the Tripitaka was of high quality, and stood as the standard Tripitaka version in East Asia for almost 700 years.

Suppression under the Joseon dynasty (1392-1910)

The Buddhist establishment at the end of the Goryeo period had become ridden with excesses. There were too many monks and nuns, a large percentage of whom were in the sangha as a means of escaping taxation and/or government service. There were also far too many temples being supported, and too many elaborate rituals being carried out, such that the support of Buddhism had become a serious drain on the national economy. The government itself was suffering from rampant corruption, and at the same time was struggling with wars on its northern and eastern borders. Moreover, a new and rapidly growing Neo-Confucian ideological movement of stridently anti-Buddhist inclination gained political power.

In 1388, an influential general named Yi Seonggye (fl. 1380-1400) carried out a coup d'etat and established himself as the first ruler of the Joseon dynasty under the reign title of Taejo in 1392 with the support of this Neo-Confucian movement. Subsequently, Buddhism was gradually suppressed for the next 500 years. The number of temples was reduced and restrictions on membership in the sangha were installed, and finally the Buddhist monks and nuns were literally chased into the mountains, forbidden to mix with society. In terms of official structure, Joseon Buddhism, which had started off under the so-called "five doctrinal and two meditational" schools system of the Goryeo, was first condensed down to two schools—Seon and Gyo. Eventually these were further reduced to the single school of Seon, which is basically the situation that remains at present.

Despite this strong suppression from the government and vehement ideological opposition from Korean Neo-Confucianism, the Seon Buddhism continued to thrive intellectually. An outstanding thinker was Giwha (己和; (Hamheo Deuktong 涵虚得通) 1376-1433), who had first studied at a Confucian academy but then changed his focus to Buddhism, where he was initiated to the gwanhwa tradition by Muhak Jacho (無學自超; 1327-1405). He wrote many scholarly commentaries as wella s essays and a large body of poetry. Being well-versed in Confucian and Daoist philosophies, Giwha also wrote an important treatise in defense of Buddhism from the standpoint of the intrinsic unity of the three teachings, entitled the Hyeon jeong non, in the tradition of earlier philosophers, applying che-yong ("essence-function") and Hwaeom sa-sa mu-ae ("mutual interpenetration of phenomena").

Commonly seen in the works of Joseon scholar-monks are writings on Hwaeom-related texts, as well as the Awakening of Faith, Sutra of Perfect Enlightenment, Śūrangama-sūtra, Diamond Sutra and the Heart Sutra. The Jogye order instituted a set curriculum of scriptural study, including the above-mentioned works, along with other shorter selections from eminent Korean monks such as Jinul.

During the Joseon period, the number of Buddhist monasteries dropped from several hundered to a mere 36. Limits were placed on the number of the clergy, land area, and ages for entering the sangha. When the final restrictions were in place, monks and nuns were prohibited from entering the cities. Buddhist funerals, and even begging were outlawed. Only occasionally a ruler appeared who looked favorably upon Buddhism and did away with some of the more suppressive regulations. The most noteworthy of these was the queen dowager Munjeong (文定王后), who, as a devout Buddhist, took control of the government in the stead of her young son Myeongjong (明宗 r. 1545-67), and immediately repealed many anti-Buddhist measures. The queen had deep respect for the brilliant monk Bou (普雨; 1515-1565) and installed him as the head of the Seon school.

One of the most important reasons for the restoration of Buddhism to a position of minimal acceptance was the role of the monks in repelling the Japanese invasion of general Hideyoshi Toyotomi, which occurred between 1592 and 1598. At that time, the government, weak from internal squabbles, was not able to initially muster strong resistance to the incursion. The plight of the country encouraged some leaders of the sangha to organize monks into guerilla units, which enjoyed some instrumental successes. The "righteous monk" (義士; uisa) movement spread during this eight-year war, finally including several thousand monks, led by the aging Seosan Hyujeong (西山休靜; 1520-1604), a first-rate Seon master and the author of a number of important religious texts. The presence of this monks' army was a critical factor in the eventual expulsion of the Japanese invaders.

Seosan is also known for his efforts in the continuation of the project of the unification of Buddhist doctrinal study and practice, and in his works strong influence can be seen from Weonhyo, Jinul and Giwha. He is considered the central figure in the revival of Joseon Buddhism, and most major streams of modern Korean Seon trace their lineages back to him through one of his four main disciples: Yujeong (1544-1610); Eongi (1581-1644), Taeneung (1562-1649) and Ilseon (1533-1608), all four of whom were lieutenants to Seosan during the war with Japan.

The biographies of Seosan and his four major disciples are similar in many respects, and these similarities are emblematic of the typical lifestyle of Seon monks of the late Goryeo and Joseon periods. Most of them started off engaged in Confucian and Daoist studies. Turning to Seon, they pursued a markedly itinerant lifestyle, wandering through the mountain monasteries. At this stage, they were initiated to the central component of Seon practice, the gong'an or gwanhwa meditation. This gwanhwa meditation, unlike that seen in some Japanese Zen traditions, did not consist of contemplation on a lengthy, graduated series of supposedly deeper "kōans". By contrast, the typical Korean approach was that "all gong'an are contained in one" and therefore it was (and still is) quite common for the practitioner to remain with one hwadu during his whole meditational career—most often Zhaozhou's "mu."

The Buddhism during the three centuries from the time of Seosan down to the next Japanese incursion into Korea in the late nineteenth century, remains fairly consistent with the above-described model. A number of eminent teachers appeared during the centuries after Seosan, but the Buddhism of the late Joseon, while keeping most of the common earlier characteristics, was especially marked by a revival of Hwaeom studies, and occasional new interpretations of methodology in Seon study. There was also a revival, during the final two centuries, of the Pure Land (Amitābha) faith. Although the government maintained a fairly tight grip on the sangha, there was never again the all-out suppression such as that seen in the early Joseon.

Buddhism during the Japanese occupation (1910-1945)

The Japanese occupation from 1910 to 1945, which brought great suffering on the Korean people as a whole, was also a time of difficultly for the Korean sangha, as it now had to comply with the extensive new set of Japanese regulations. Initially, there were some aspects of the occupation which were beneficial to Korean Buddhists. The fact that Japanese Buddhists demanded the right to proselytize in the cities brought about a lifting of the five-hundred year ban on entry by monks and nuns into the cities. But on the other hand, the Japanese Buddhist custom of marriage by Buddhist priests contradicted the lifestyle of the Korean Buddhist monks and nuns, who traditionally lived in celibacy. The Japanese occupation authorities encouraged this practice, and also appointed their own heads of temples, and had many works of art shipped to Japan. After the war, an intense controversy on the subject of celibacy broke out, and eventually, it was restored. Negotiations about the repatriation of Korean Buddhist artworks are still ongoing.

The modern era (1945-present)

During the fifty-odd years after the liberation of Korea from the Japanese rule, the Seon school, led by the dominant Jogye order, has been restored to a position of respectability in Korean society. Korean Buddhism remains today, especially in comparison to that of its East Asian neighbors, a remarkably vital and meaningful institution. Estimates of the percentage of active Buddhists in Korea today run around forty percent. Full scale, disciplined traditional Seon practice is being carried out at a number of major mountain monasteries in Korea, often under the direction of highly regarded masters. It is this reason that the past couple of decades have seen a steadily increasing flow of Western practitioner-aspirants into the Korean monastic training system.

Modern Seon practice is thought not to be far removed in content from that which was implemented by Jinul—an integrated combination of the practice of gwanhwa meditation with the study of selected Buddhist texts. The Korean sangha life, was, and remains down to the present, markedly itinerant. While having their "home base" monasteries, monks regularly travel throughout the mountains, staying as long as they wish, studying/teaching in the style of their monastery of residence.

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